Japanese encephalitic (JE) is a public health problem in many part of Myanmar. The disease was transmitted to human by the bite of vector Culex mosquitoes. The study was conducted in Moe-Kaung, Pake-Tar-Gyi, Au-Kyun and Yay-Lein villages in Wakema Township, Ayeyawady Region and in Pake-Tar-Gyi where JE cases were reported. Fifty houses each was randomly selected from each village near with the pig farm. Mosquitoes were collected in all selected houses and pig farms using WHO sucking tubes. Result found that JE main vector Cx. tritaeniorhynchus was abundantly collected in all study areas. The JE vector density (54.14%) was highest than other species in Wakema Township. The highest number of JE vector was found n=529 in Moe Kaung village followed by n=512 in Pake Tar Gyi and peak biting time was found at 10-11pm. Suspected vector Cx. vishnui was abundantly found in Pake Tar Gyi and Au Kyun villages than others. Very low number of Cx. gelitus was collected only in Au Kyun. Filarial vector Cx. quinquefasciatus was highest number in Pake Tar Gyi village n=83 followed by in Moe Kaung village n=75. Only three species of Anopheles mosquitoes were collected in Moe Kaung and Pake Tar Gyi villages, An. hyrcanus was collected in all villages, highest in Yay-Lein village. Culex tritaeniorhynchus larvae were abundantly found in rice field water and polluted water pools and stagnant water pools near or under the thatch plants. Highest density of main vector and suspected vectors were found in JE transmitted areas. Pig are main host of JE virus, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus adult and larvae were abundantly collected in polluted water sources in all selected villages and JE cases are available in Pake Tar Gyi village. Therefore, Modified agriculture practices, pig vaccination, rigorous monitoring, vector control, and improved living standards can reduce morbidity of JE cases. This study provides further information on risk of JE transmission in study areas. Environmental and ecological factors are responsible for the spread of JE virus. Therefore, VBDC need to distribute LLINs nets and health education to all family members to prevent JE transmission in villages.

Keywords: Japanese encephalitis (JE), Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Primary, Secondary, Vectors, Pig Farms, Mosquitoes, Density, Larvae, Habitats.

[1] Amersinghe FP, Peiris JS, Karunaratne SH, & Amersinghe PH. (1988). Epidemiology of the 1987 Japanese encephalitis outbreak in Anuradhapura area. I. Entomological aspects. Proceeding Sri Lanka Medical Association, 101: 22–23.

[2] Banerjee K, Mahadev PVM, Ilkal MA, Mishra AC, Dhanda V, Modi GB, et al. (1979). Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from mosquitoes collected in Bankura district, West Bengal, during October 1974 to December 1975. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 69: 201.

[3] Campbell GL, Hills SL, Fischer M, et al. (2011). Estimated global incidence of Japanese Encephalitis, a systematic review. Bull World Health Organization, 89(10): 766–774.

[4] Center for Food Security and Public Health ISU (2016). Japanese Encephalitis.

[5] Daibin Zhong, Pyae Linn Aung, Maung Maung Mya, Xiaoming Wang, Qian Qin, Myat Thu Soe, Guofa Zhou, Myat Phone Kyaw, Jetsumon Sattabongkot, Liwang Cui & Guiyun Yan (2022). Community structure and insecticide resistance of malaria vectors in northern-central Myanmar. Parasites & Vectors, 15: 155–166. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13071-022-05262-2.

[6] Department of Public Health (2020). Annual Report, DOPH 2020.

[7] Department of Public Health (2017). Annual Report, DOPH 2017.

[8] Dutta PS, Khan A, Khan AM, Bohora J, Sarmah CK, et al. (2011). The effect of insecticide-treated nets (ITMNs) on Japanese encephalitis virus seroconversion in pigs and humans. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 84(3): 466–472.

[9] Endy TP, & Nisalak A. (2002). Japanese encephalitis virus: ecology and epidemiology. Current Topics Microbiology Immunology, 267: 11–48.

[10] Erlanger, T.E., Weiss, S., Keiser, J., Utzinger, I., & Wiedenmeyer, K. (2009). Past, present, and future of Japanese encephalitis. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 15: 1–7.

[11] Ghosh D, Basu A. Brooker S, ed. (2009). Japanese encephalitis-a pathological and clinical perspective. PLoS Negligible Tropical Diseases, 3: 437.

[12] Ghoshal, A, Das S, Ghosh S, Mishra MK, Sharma Koli V, Sen P, & Basu E. (2007). Pro-inflammatory mediators released by activated microglia induce neuronal death in Japanese encephalitis. Glia, 55: 48396.

[13] Gupta N, & Lakshmana Rao PV. (2011). Transcriptomic profile of host response in Japanese encephalitis virus infection. Virology Journal, 8: 92.

[14] Harrison BA. (1980). Medical Entomology Studies: XIII.The Myzomyia series of Anopheles (Cellia) in Thailand, with emphasis on intrainterspecific variation (Diptera:Culicdae). Am Entomology Inst., 17: 1–195.

[15] Henrich TJ, Hutchaleelaha S, Jiwariyavej V, Barbazan P, Nitatpattana N, et al. (2003). Geographic dynamics of viral encephalitis in Thailand. Microbes and Infection, 5(7): 603–611.

[16] Jeffries, C.L., & Walker, T. (2015). The potential use of Wolbachia-based mosquito biocontrol strategies for Japanese encephalitis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 9: e0003576.

[17] Kabilan L, Rajendran R, Arunachalam N, et al. (2004). Japanese encephalitis in India: an overview. Indian Journal Pediatric, 71: 609–15.

[18] Kim, HC., Terry A.K., Ratree T., Brian PE., Sirima M., Ampornpan K. John G. Penny M. Myung-SK., Sung-TC., Jong-KL., & Won-JL. (2011). Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Culicine Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) Collected at Daeseongdong, a Village in the Demilitarized Zone of the Republic of Korea. Journal of Medical Entomology, 48(6): 1250–1256. doi: 10.1603/me11091.

[19] Ladreyt H., Chevalier V., & Durand B. (2022). Modelling Japanese encephalitis virus transmission  dynamics and human exposure in a Cambodian rural multi-host system. PLoS Negl Trop Dis., 16(7): e0010572. doi: 10.1371/ journal.pntd.0010572.

[20] Lay Myint, Kyaw Oo, Win Hlaing, Hlaing Myat Thu, Kyaw Zin Thant, Sein Maung Than, et al. (2000). Investigation of Japanese Encephalitis virus infection in Bogalay Township, Myanmar in 1999. Tropical Medicine, 42(2): 47–52.

[21] Luis M. Hernandez Triana, Arran J. Folly, Sanam Sewgobind,  et al. (2022). Susceptibility of Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus to Japanese Encephalitis virus. Parasites & Vectors, 15(210): 1–8. doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13071-022-05329-0.

[22] Luo D, Yao R, Song J, Huo H, & Wang Z. (1994). The effect of DDT spraying and bed nets impregnated with pyrethroid insecticide on the incidence of Japanese encephalitis virus infection. Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 88(6): 629–631.

[23] Mansfield KL., Hernández-Triana LM., Banyard AC., Fooks AR., & Johnson N. (2017). Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals. Veterinary Microbiology., 2017: 20185–92.

[24] Maung Maung Mya, Aung Ye Naung Win, Pwint Mon Oo, Sein Thaung, Tin Oo & Khin Thet Wa (2022). Improving awareness and transmission risk reduction related to Japanese Encephalitis in endemic Region of Mon State Myanmar. Global Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 4(2): 133–143. doi: http://doi.org/10.36266/ GJMSE/133.

[25] Maung Maung Mya, Aung Ye Naung Win, Pye Phyo Kyaw, Sein Thaung, Pwint Mon Oo, Zaw Lin, Tin Oo and Khin Thet Wa & Kyaw Zin Thant (2023). Improving awareness and transmission risk reduction related to Japanese Encephalitis in Ayeyarwady Region of Myanmar. Global Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 5(2): 1–9. doi: http://doi.org/10.36266/GJMSE/149.

[26] Maung Maung Mya, Aung Ye Naung Win, Sein Thaung, Zar Ni Min Hein, Pwint Mon Oo, Zaw Lin, Tin Oo, Khin Thet Wai & Kyaw Zin Thant (2020). Improving Awareness and Transmission Risk Reduction Related to Japanese Encephalitis in Endemic Region of Myanmar. Myanmar Health Sciences Res. Journal, 32(2): 95–104.

[27] Maung Maung Mya, Myat Phone Kyaw, Sein Thaung, Tin Tin Aung & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2018). Potential vectors of malaria in Kamamaung, Myanmar and their bionomic. Indian J. of Entomology, 80(4): 1–8

[28] Maung Maung Mya, Nyunt Nyunt Oo & Yin Moe Thein (2023). Occurrence of Some Mosquito Species in Tha-Ma-Nya Village, Hpa-an Township, Kayin State in Myanmar. Middle East Journal of Applied Sciences and Technology, 6(2): 153–164.

[29] Mori MC. (2000). Siegel R. Live attenuated Japanese encephalitis (SA14-14-2) vaccine: The best alternative?

[30] Myo Paing, Thi Thi Naing, Sein Min & Zaw Myint (1990). Anopheles mosquitoes of Myanmar. III. Anopheles (Cellia ) philippinensis Ludlow 1902 & Anopheles (cellia) nivipes Thebald 1903 in Myanmar and their differentiating characters. Myanmar Health Sci. Res J., 2: 32–38.

[31] Nan Than Than Kyi (2015). Occurrence of Aedes larvae in water storage containers in Hpa-an Township. Kayin State (M Research Thesis).

[32] Nandha B., & Krishnamoorthy K. (2112). Impact of education campaign on community based vector control in hastening the process of elimination of lymphatic filariasis in Tamil Nadu, South India. Health Education Research, 27(4): 585–594.

[33] Nyunt Nyunt Oo, Maung Maung Mya, Myo Thandar Thone, Aye Thida Than, Nu Nu Aung & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2019). Occurrence of Aedes larvae in domestic water storage containers in two villages of Pakokku Township Magway region, Myanmar. World Journal of Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences, 5(7): 9–17.

[34] Peyton, FL., & Harrison BA. (1979). Anopheles (Cellia) dirus, a new species of the Luicosphyrus group from Thailand (Diptera: Culicidae). Mosquitoes System, 11: 40–52.

[35] Pwint Mon Oo TH, Saw Lwin, Chakarat Pittyawonganon, Jeeraphat Sirichaisinthop & San Kywat Khine (2016). A Large Outbreak of Japanese Encephalitis in Rakhine State, Myanmar: Implication for Vaccine Policy. Outbreak, Surveillance & Investigation Reports (OSIR), 9(2): 8–15.

[36] Raid, JA. (1967). Two Forms of Anopheles philippinensis malago. J Med Entomol., 4: 175–179.

[37] Sari L.R. Andyani P., & Wijaya SU. (2023). Vector–reservoir transmission in the Japanese Encephalitis modle. Indonesian Journal of Mathematic and Applications, 1(1): 15–23.

[38] Thin Thin Swe, Kathy Myint, Maung Maung Mya, Tin Mar Yi Htun & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2019). Prevalence and Bionomics of Aedes mosquitoes in Amuehtan Ward Thanlyin Township, Yangon Region. World Journal of Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences, 5(8): 33–41.

[39] Tun Lin W, Maung Maung Mya, Sein Maung Than & Tin Maung Maung (1995). Rapid and efficient removal of immature Ae. aegypti in metal drums by sweep net and modified sweeping method. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 26(4): 754–759.

[40] VBDC (2017). Annual Report. Vector Borne Diseases Control.

[41] Wei Ting Liu, Yi Ju Chen, Cheng Chen Chen, Kuei Min Liao, Hau You Tzeng & Wu Chun Tu (2023). Impact of temperature on infection with Japanese encephalitis virus of rhree potential urban vectors in Taiwan, Aedes albopictus, Armigeres subalbatus and Culex quinquefqsciatus. Acta Tropica, 237: 106726. doi: 10.1016/j.acta tropica.2022.106726.

[42] World Health Organization (2015). Japanese Encephalitis, Immunization, Vaccines and biologicals, estimate of the global diseases burden. December 2015.

[43] World Health Organization (1975). Manual on practical entomology in malaria part II. Geneva: WHO 1975.

[44] World Health Organization (2005). WHO Guidelines for laboratory and Field testing of Mosquito larvicides. WHO/CDS/WHOPES/GCDPP/2005-13pp41.

[45] Yadav S., & Ahmad S. (2017). An assessment of community participation in control and prevention of Japanese encephalitis in rural Uttar Pradesh. International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health, 6(11): 1614–1619.

[46] Zaw A, Latt, Aye KM, Win HM, Aung KM, Oo KK, Thu HM, Win MM, Thu HM, & Yoksan S. (2015). Isolation and Identification of Japanese Encephalitis virus from piglets in Thakayta Township, Yangon. Myanmar Health Sci. Res, 27: 1–6.

[47] Zaw A, Latt, Thu HM, Aye KT, Thu HM, Oo KK & Yoksan S. (2011). Isolation and identification of Japanese encephalitis virus from pigs in Dikeoo pig farm. Myanmar Health Sci. Res, 23: 21–25.

Source of Funding:

This study did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing Interests Statement:

The authors have declared no competing interests.

Consent for Publication:

The authors declare that they consented to the publication of this research work.

Ethical Approval:

Not Applicable.

Author’s Contribution:

All the authors took part in data collection and manuscript writing equally.