Malaria endemicity is remaining in hard to reach and insurgent areas in Myanmar, where high density of primary and secondary vectors are available. Present study was determined the distribution, survivability and insecticides susceptibility status of vectors and non-vectors of malaria in Katinehtit village Kamamaung Township, Kayin State from July 2020 to June 2021. Mosquitoes were collected by Kanda net for animal bait and CDC light traps for indoor and outdoor collection from 18:00 to 00:06 hour. Survivability rate of An. dirus, An. minimu, An. aconitus, An. philippinensis, An. vagus and An. culicifacies were measured under the group of banana plants and susceptibility of collected mosquitoes were tested with WHO recommended insecteds. A total of 2207 mosquitoes consist of 13 Anopheles mosquito adult were collected by different collection methods by Cattle bate 1581(71.64%), Light trap indoor 174(7.88%), Light trap outdoor 297(13.46%), Morning Resting 43(1.95%) and Near the resting plant 112(5.07). Main vector An. dirus and An. minimus were mostly collected in Rainey season in high density and An. dirus was disappeared in hot season. Main vector An. minimus and secondary vector as An. philippinensis, An. culicifacies, An. maculatus, An. aconitus and nan vector An. barbirostris and An. hyrcanus were collected in all seasons. An. philippinensis, An. barbirostris and An. hyrcanus were abundantly collected. The highest survivability rate was found An. dirus and An. vagus for 8 days (10%) followed by An. culicifacies (20%), An. philippinensis (10%), An. minimus (20%) for 7 days and lowest was found An. aconitus for 6 days (20%). High density of An. dirus larvae were collected from rock pools and An. minimus was collected in sand pools, rice fields water, bed of Yonsalin creeks and water pools. All the collected mosquitoes were susceptible to Deltamethrin 0.05%, Permethrin 0.75% and Cyfuthris 0.15%. In conclusion, high density of main malaria vectors and secondary vectors were collected from Katinehtit village is a high risk area of malaria. Although all the collected main and secondary vectors were susceptible to WHO recommended insecticides. Therefore, Long Lasting Insecticide impregnated nets can be preventing the transmission of malaria in this area.

Keywords: Susceptibility, Survivability, Vector, An. dirus, An. minimus, Density, Anopheles, Deltamethrin, Kanda net, Larval habitats.

[1] Health in Myanmar (2019). Annual Report. Health in Myanmar, 2019.

[2] MOHS (2018). Malaria report. Ministry of Health and Sports, 2018.

[3] Hii, J., Vythilingam, I., & Roca-Feltrer, A. (2018). Human and simian malaria in the Greater Mekong Subregion and challenges for elimination. In Manguin S., Dev V., (eds.) Towards malaria elimination-a leap forward, Rijeka: Intech Open, Pages 95–127.

[4] Cui, L., Cao, Y., Kaewkungwal, J., Khamsiriwatchara, A., Lawpoolsri, S., Soe, T.N., et al. (2018). Malaria elimination in the Greater Mekong Subregion: challenges and prospects. In Manguin S, Dev V., (eds.) et al., Towards malaria elimination a- leap forward, Rijeka: Intech Open, Pages 179–200.

[5] WHO (2017). Global vector control response 2017–2030. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2017.

[6] WHO (2019). World malaria report 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2019.

[7] Subbarao, S.K., Nanda, N, Rahi, M., & Raghavendra K. (2019). Biology and bionomics of malaria vectors in India: existing information and what more needs to be known for strategizing elimination of malaria. Malar J., 18: 396–406. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-019-3011-8.

[8] Khin Maung Kyi (1970). Malaria vectors in Burma Anopheles balabacensis balabacensis Baisas, 1936. Union Bur J. Life Sci., 3: 217–225.

[9] Tun Lin, W., Myat Myat Thu, Sein Maung Than & Maung Maung Mya (1995). Hyper-endemic malaria in a forested hilly Myanmar village. Journal of American Mosquitoes Control Association, 11(4): 401–407.

[10] Maung Maung Mya, Phyo Wai Win, Aye Mya Thandar, Maung Maung Gyi, Myint Zu Min & Yan Naung Maung (2019). Breeding habit and habitat of Anopheles mosquitoes in forest fringe and plain areas in Myanmar. International Journal of Educational Research and Studies, 1(1): 30–37.

[11] Maung Maung Mya, Myat Phone Kyaw, Kyaw Thu Soe, Pyae Linn Aung, Than Tun, Nwe Nwe Aye, Ye Kyaw Thu, Swan Htet Aung & Kyaw Kyaw Linn (2021). An intervention study of Deltamethrin impregnation of lower efficacy of used LLINs and local mosquito nets in Ohnpinkone ward, Nant Nhyin village, Banmauk Township, Sagaing Region in Myanmar. Journal of Agriculture & Forestry Research, 1(2): 26–39.

[12] Maung Maung Mya, Sein Thaung, Phyo Aung Naing & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2018). Prevalence of sibling species complex of Anopheles minimus in Pyin Oo Lwin Township, Mandalay Region and Kamamaung Township, Kayin State. Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal, 30(2): 161–162.

[13] Tun Lin, W., Myo Paing & Zaw Myint (1988). A modification of the WHO dipping procedure for well breeding Anopheles in Burma. Tropical Biomedical, 5: 51–53.

[14] Htay Aung, Sein Minn, Sein Thaung, Maung Maung Mya, Sein Maung Than, Thaung Hlaing Soe Soe & P. Druilhe Quecuche (1999). Well breeding Anopheles dirus and their role in malaria transmission in Myanmar. South East Asian J. Trop Med Pub Health, 30: 447–453.

[15] Saw Lwin, Sein Min & Maung Maung ( 2016). Study of vector bionomics of malaria in Rakhine State and Taninthayi Region, presentation in Entomology workshop in Mecasa Hotel, Yangon Myanmar February 2016.

[16] Maung Maung Mya, R.K. Saxena & Paing Soe (2002). Study of malaria in a village of lower Myanmar. Indian Journal Malariology, 39(3–4): 96–102. 

[17] Maung Maung Mya, Myat Phone Kyaw, Sein Thaung, Tin Tin Aung & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2016). Vector bionomics and potential vectors of malaria in Kamamaung Township, Phanpun District, Kayin State. Programme and abstracts 44th Myanmar Health Research Congress 2016, Pages 103.  

[18] Durnez, L., et al. (2013). Outdoor malaria transmission in forested villages of Cambodia. Malar. J., https://doi. org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-329.

[19] St. Laurent, B., et al. (2016). Cow-baited tents are highly efective in sampling diverse Anopheles malaria vectors in Cambodia. Malar. J., 15: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-016-1488-y.

[20] Sinka, M.E., et al. (2011). The dominant Anopheles vectors of human malaria in the Asia-Pacifc region: occurrence data, distribution maps and bionomic precis. Parasit. Vectors. 4: 89. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-33 05-4-89.

[21] Tananchai, C., Manguin, S., Michael J. Bangs & Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap (2019). Malaria Vectors and Species Complexes in Thailand. Trends in Parasitology, 35(7): 544–558.

[22] Edwards, H.M., et al. (2019). Transmission risk beyond the village: Entomological and human factors contributing to residual malaria transmission in an area approaching malaria elimination on the Thailand–Myanmar border. Malar. J., 18: 221. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s12936-019-2852-5.

[23] Yu, H., Tan, K., Yang, G., Tao Wang, Song, Z., Chen, G., et al. (2014). Threshold density of Anopheles sinensis for transmission of malaria in Chengdu city. J. Prev. Med. Inf., 30: 817–820.

[24] World Health Organization (1975). Manual on practical entomology in malaria part II. Geneva, WHO 1975.

[25] Harrison, B.A. (1980). Medical Entomology Studies: XIII. The Myzomyia series of Anopheles (Cellia) in Thailand, with emphasis on intra-interspecific variation (Diptera: Culicdae). Am Entomology Inst., 17: 1–195.

[26] Raid, J.A. (1967). Two Forms of Anopheles philippinensis malago. J. Med. Entomol., 4: 175–179.

[27] Myo Paing, Thi Thi Naing, Sein Min & Zaw Myint (1990). Anopheles mosquitoes of Myanmar. III. Anopheles (Cellia) philippinensis Ludlow 1902 & Anopheles (Cellia) nivipes The bald 1903 in Myanmar and their differentiating characters. Myanmar Health Sci. Res. J., 2: 32–38.

[28] Maung Maung Mya, Myat Phone Kyaw, Sein Thaung, Tin Tin Aung & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2017). Occurrence of Anopheles mosquitoes, potential vector, sibling species and susceptibility in malaria endemic areas of Kamamaung Township, Kayin State. Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal, 29(2): 165–166.

[29] Maung Maung Mya, Sein Thaung, Nyan Sint, Yee Yee Myint, Sai Zaw Min Oo, Pae Phyo Kyaw, Di Lone & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2020). Vector bionomics, potential vectors and insecticide efficacy in malaria endemic areas, Ye Township, Mon State Myanmar. Scientific Research Journal (SCIRJ), 8(7): 31–43.

[30] Ndoen, E., Wild, C., Dale, P., Sipe, N., & Dale, M. (2012). Mosquito Longevity, Vector Capacity, and Malaria Incidence in West Timor and Central Java, Indonesia. International Scholarly Research Network, Public Health, ID 143863, 5 Pages. doi: 10.5402/2012/143863.

[31] Midega, J.T., Mbogo, C.M., Mwambi, H., Wilson, M.D., Ojwang, G., Mwangangi, J.M., Nzovu, J.G., Githure, J.I., Yan, G., & Beier, J.C. (2007). Estimating Dispersal and Survival of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus Along the Kenyan Coast by Using Mark–Release–Recapture Methods. J Med Entomol., 44(6): 923–929.

[32] Maung Maung Mya, Myat Phone Kyaw, Myat Thu Soe, Pye Lin Aung, Than Tun, Nwet Nwet Aye, Ye Kyaw Thu, Swen Htat Aung, Phone Myint Lwin, Aung Kyaw Kyaw & Kyaw kyaw Lin (2022). Vector bionomics, potential vectors, susceptibility and bio-efficacy of LLINs nets on Anopheles mosquitoes in Nanyin Village Bunmouk Township Sagaing Region in Myanmar. Middle East Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 5(3): 22–31.

[33] Maung Maung Mya, Sein Thaung, Sai Zaw Min Oo, Zarni Min Hein & Yan Naung Maung Maung (2022). Investigation of Anopheles mosquito species, potential vectors and susceptibility of Anopheles mosquitoes in Gold mine areas of Shwe Kyin and Bee Lin Townships in Myanmar. Global Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 4(3): 138–149. http://doi.org/10.36266/GJMSE/138.

[34] Maung Maung Mya, Nyunt Nyunt Oo & Yin Moe Thein (2023). Occurrence of Some Mosquito Species in Tha-Ma-Nya Village, Hpa-an Township, Kayin State in Myanmar. Middle East Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 6(2): 153–164.

[35] Vector Borne Diseases Control (2014). Annual reports. VBDC, 2014.

[36] Sharma, V.P. (1999). Current scenario of malaria in India. Parassitologia, 41(1–3): 349–353.

[37] Connor, C.O., & Soepanto, A. (1989). Illustrated Key to Female Anophelines of Indonesia, Directorate of Communicable Disease, MOH and US Naval Medical Research, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1989.

[38] Takken, W., et al. (1990). Environmental measures for malaria control in Indonesia. A historical review on species sanitation, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1990.

[39] Laihad, F.J. (2000). Malaria di Indonesia. In Malaria, Patogenesis, Manifestasi Klinis & Penanganan, P.N. Harijanto (eds.), Pages 17–25, EGC—Penerbit Buku Kedokteran, Jakarta, Indonesia.

[40] Harijanto, P.N. (2000). Malaria: Epidemiologi, Patogenesis, Manifestasi Klinis, dan Penanganan, Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC, Jakarta, Indonesia.

[41] Killeen, G.F., Knols, B.G.J., & Gu, W. (2003). Taking malaria transmission out of the bottle: implications of mosquito dispersal for vector control interventions. Lancet Infect Dis., 3: 297–302.

[42] Service, M.W. (1997). Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) dispersal: the long and short of it. J. Med. Entomol., 34: 579–588.

[43] Jones, C.G. (1964). The human blood index of malaria vectors in relation to epidemiological assessment. Bull. World Health Org., 30: 241.

[44] Hien, D.F.D.S., Dabiré, K.R., Roche, B., Diabaté, A., Yerbanga, R.S., Cohuet, A., et al. (2016). Plant Mediated Effects on Mosquito Capacity to Transmit Human Malaria. PLoS Pathog., 12(8): e1005773. doi: 10.137 1/journal.ppat.1005773.

[45] Gu, W.D., Muller, G., Schlein, Y., Novak, R.J., & Beier, J.C. (2011). Natural plant sugar sources of Anopheles mosquitoes strongly impact malaria transmission potential. PLoS One, 6: e15996.

[46] Smith, D.L., & McKenzie, F.E. (2004). Statics and dynamics of malaria infection in Anopheles mosquitoes. Malar J., 3: 13.

[47] Chukwuekezie, O., Nwosu, E., Nwangwu, U., Dogunro, F., Onwude, C., Agashi, N., Ezihe, E., Anioke, C., Anokwu, S., Eloy, E., Attah, P., Orizu, F., Ewo, S., Okoronkwo, A., Joseph, A., Ikeakor, I., Haruna, S., & Gnanguenon, V. (2020). Resistance status of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) to four commonly used insecticides for malaria vector control in South-East Nigeria. Parasit Vectors, 24(1): 152. doi: 10.1186/s13071-020-04027-z.

[48] Yan, J., Kibech, R., & Stone, C.M. (2021). Longevity is a key competent of vectorial capacity as vectors must survive long enough to allow pathogens to replicate to a high level before the virus can be disseminated in subsequent bites. Frontiers in Zoology.

[49] Service, M.W., & Towson, H. (2002). The Anopheles vector. In Essential Malariology, D.A. Warrell & H.M. Gilles (eds.), Pages 59–84, Arnold, London, UK.

[50] Sandosham, A.A., & Thomas, V. (1983). Malariology, with Special Reference to Malaya. Singapore University Press, Singapore.

[51] Hawaria Dawit, Solomon Kibret, Assalif Demissew, Arega Tsegaye, Denekew Bitew, Guiyun Yan & Delenasaw Yewhalaw (2021). Survivorship of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato in irrigated sugarcane plantation scheme in Ethiopia. Parasites Vectors, 14: 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04630.

[52] Ohm, J.R., Baldini, F., Barreaux, P., Lefevre, T., Lynch, P.A, Suh, E., et al. (2018). Rethinking the extrinsic incubation period of malaria parasites. Parasit Vectors, 11: 178.

[53] Susanna, D., (2005). Dinamika Penularan Malaria di Ekosistem Persawahan, Perbukitan, dan Pantai (Studi di Kabupaten Jepara,Purworejo, dan Kota Batam). In Postgraduate Program, Faculty of Public Health—Doctoral Progam in Public Health, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.

[54] Bruce-Chwatt, L.J. (1980). Essential Malariology. William Heinnemann Medical Books Ltd., London, UK.

[55] Warrell, D.A., & Gilles, H.M. (2002). Essential Malariology. Arnold, London, UK, 4th edition.

[56] Maun Maung Mya, Sein Thaung, Yee Yee Myint, Thu Zar Nyein Mu & Yan Naung Maung (2022). Distribution of Anopheles mosquitoes, Potential vectors, Insecticide susceptibility and Bio-efficacy of LLINs nets in different State and Regions in Myanmar. Global Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 4(2): 1–11. http:// doi.org/10.36266/GJMSE/130.

[57] Ritthison, W., Titgratog, R., Tainchum, K., Bangs, M.J., Manguin, S., & Chareonviriyaphap T. (2014). Pyrethroid Susceptibility and behavioral avoidance in Anopheles epiroticus, a malaria vector in Thailand. Journal of Vector Ecology, 39(1): 32–43.

[58] Ochomo, E., Bayoh, M.N., Brogdon, W.G., Brogdon, J.E., Gimnig, J.E., Ouma, C., Vulule, J.M., & Walker, E.D. (2013). Pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Anopheles arabiensis in western Kenya: phenotypic, metabolic and target site characterizations of three populations. Med Vet Entomol., 27: 156–164.

[59] Ranson, H., & Lissenden, N. (2016). Insecticide resistance in African Anopheles mosquitoes: A worsening situation that needs urgent action to maintain malaria control. Trends Parasitol., 32, 187–196. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.pt.2015.11.010.

[60] Hargreaves, K., Koekemoer, L.L, Brooke, B.D, Hunt, R.H, Mthembu, J., & Coetzee, M. (2000). Anopheles funestus resistant to pyrethroid insecticides in South Africa. Med Vet Entomol., 14: 181–189.

[61] Bayoh, M.N., Mathias, D.K., Odiere, M.R., Mutuku, F.M., Kamau, L., Gimnig, J.E., Vulule, J.M., Hawley, W.A., Hamel, M.J., & Walker, E.D. (2010). Anopheles gambiae: historical population decline associated with regional distribution of insecticide treated bed nets in western Nyanza Province, Kenya. Malar J., 9: 62.

[62] Daibin Zhong, Pyae Linn Aung, Maung Maung Mya, Xiaoming Wang, Qian Qin, Myat Thu Soe, Guofa Zhou, Myat Phone Kyaw, Jetsumon Sattabongkot, Liwang Cui & Guiyun Yan (2022). Community structure and insecticide resistance of malaria vectors in northern-central Myanmar. Parasites & Vectors, 15: 155–166. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13071-022-05262-2.

Source of Funding:

This study has not received any funds from any organization.

Conflict of Interest:

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Consent for Publication:

The authors declare that they consented to the publication of this study.

Authors’ Contribution:

All the authors took part in data collection, literature review, analysis, and manuscript writing.